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15 December 2024, Volume 43 Issue 06

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Discovery, cognition and theoretical exploration of the human evolution studies in China since the begining of 21^st century

LIU Wu

2024, 43(06):  881-899.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0085

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Starting in the early 20^th century, the human evolution studies in China have experienced more than one hundred years. Since beginning of the 21^st century, impressive advances have been achieved on the human evolution studies in China. Except for discovering abundant hominin fossils, a series of field work and lab studies have been conducted in Paleolithic archaeology, chronology, and ancient DNA and protein, which indicate the human evolution studies in China have become a wide range of multidisciplinary research. Among these advances, the discoveries of hominin fossils and related studies in the past twenty years are most important, which mainly touched the issues of modern human origin and late Middle Pleistocene hominin evolution in East Asia. The discovery of Late Pleistocene hominin fossils in Tianyuandong with AMS ¹⁴C dating put the emergence of early modern human in East Asia 40 kaBP which made the studies of modern human origin in China under more accurate dating frame. The subsequent hominin fossil discoveries from Huanglongdong, Zhirendong, Lunadong and Daoxian from the Late Pleistocene further made the appearing time of the modern humans in China as early as 80 to 120 kaBP. Since 21^st century, the discoveries of the late Middle Pleistocene hominin fossils from Penghu, Xuchang, Hualongdong, Xiahe and Harbin greatly enrich the hominin fossil records in China and provide important information for the research into human evolution in East Asia. During this period, studies on these newly discovered and other late Middle Pleistocene hominin fossils including Dali, Jinniushan, Xujiayao, Maba and Tongzi have been conducted with most impressive finding that the fossil morphology and evolutionary patterns of the late Middle Pleistocene hominins exhibit very complicated diversities. The morphologies of these fossils are characterized by both derived and archaic features. Some of the fossils exhibit similar or even the same morphological features as in modern humans but others still keep more archaic features. Such a finding suggests the transition from archaic to modern morphology occurred as early as 300 kaBP or emergence of modern humans in China may be much earlier than previously believed. The late Middle Pleistocene hominins living in different regions of China do not have the equal contribution to the formation of modern humans. Simply classifying all the hominins of this time period into archaic Homo sapiens cannot accurately reflect the evolutionary patterns of late Middle Pleistocene hominins in China.

As the research of multidisciplinary approaches, the studies of different fields in human evolution have also been conducted in the past twenty years. The present author believes that four studies represent the most important advances in Paleolithic archaeology in China. These studies touched the issues of Middle Pleistocene Acheulean-like stone technology in China, the earliest human occupation in Tibetan Plateau by 40 kaBP to 30 kaBP, the late Middle Pleistocene Levallois stone-tool technology in China and modern human behaviors of ochre processing and tool use in China 40 kaBP. The dating the hominin fossil on the stone tool sites of Xiaochangliang and Majuangou in Nihewan Basin, Shangchen in Lantian updated the opinion of the earliest time for hominin arrival to Northeast Asia and East Asia 1.66 MaBP and 2.13 MaBP respectively. The studies on fossil taphonomy, ancient DNA and ancient protein have also been carried out. A series of new discoveries and understanding have been achieved from these works, and academic explorations on some key issues on the human evolution in China have also been discussed. In this paper, centered on the hominin fossil discovery and research, important advances on the human evolution in China are reviewed and key issues discussed.



Human fossils discovered in Zhoukoudian and their research progress

WU Xiujie

2024, 43(06):  900-912.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0084

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The Zhoukoudian site is located on Longgu mountain, Zhoukoudian Town, Fangshan district is 48 km southwest of Beijing. The site was discovered in the 1920s, and since the first skullcap of Peking Man was discovered in 1929, 27 paleontological and archaeological localities were found at the Zhoukoudian site(ZKD). Among them, five of the localities yielded Pleistocene human fossils; they are: ZKD-1 (800~ 200 kaBP), Locality 4 (200~ 100 kaBP), ZKD-15 (Late Middle Pleistocene to early Late Pleistocene), Upper Cave (about 30 kaBP) and Tianyuan Cave (about 40 kaBP). The geological age of the sites investigated range from the Middle Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene, covering more than 500 ka. According to the physical characteristics of the human fossils, the evolutionary status of Zhoukoudian hominids were classified as Homo erectus, archaic Homo sapiens (Middle and Late Pleistocene “non-Homo erectus” archaic humans) or early modern humans. The research at in Zhoukoudian site can be summarized into the following three periods: 1) Large-scale excavation in the 1920s and 1930s with abundant human fossils found at the Locality 1 and Upper Cave. Locality 1 fossils were named as Sinanthropus pekinensis, Peking Man or Zhoukoudian Homo erectus, include five relatively complete crania, more than 150 teeth, several mandibles, and a large number of cranial, facial, and postcranial fragments, totalling about 40 individuals. At Upper Cave, three human skulls, four mandibles plus a few teeth and bone fragmens were found, representing about 7 to 10 individuals. Unfortunately, all the above specimens were lost during the World War II. 2) A period of excavation recovery and site clearing after the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. During this time, 11 human fossils were found at Locality 1. 3) New discoveries in the 21^st century included a human skeleton from Tianyuan Cave, and a human parietal bone was identified among the fragments of mammal fossils at the Zhoukoudian Locality 15.

Over the past years, there continues much discussion about Zhoukoudian such as: Whether the Peking Man has unique or derived features which is not shared by the African and other Asian representatives; whether Peking Man is the direct ancestor of modern populations in East Asia; and whether the Upper Cave Man has Mongoloid characteristics. In recent years, with the new discoveries and the innovative research methods, further questions dealing with survival adaptations and genetic structure have been asked. In commemoration of the 95^th anniversary of the discovery of the first Peking Man skullcap, this paper reviews and summarizes the history, research topics and research progress of work discovery at Zhoukoudian Site, in order to provide reference for the discussion of human evolution in East Asia.



A general review on the discovery and research progress of hominins in the Nihewan Basin since the 21^st century

PEI Shuwen, WANG Fagang, NIU Dongwei

2024, 43(06):  913-933.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0086

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The Nihewan Basin, filled with fluvial and lacustrine Quaternary deposits contains the densest concentration of Paleolithic sites outside of Africa, and is considered the key region to study environmental fluctuations and human adaptations in North China. Many archaeological discoveries and sites have led to an enlargement of the occupation area and also provided significant information on technological sequences in the Basin. Other developments include new work on magnetostratigraphic, OSL and cosmogenic nuclide dating techniques that have built the chronological framework of human occupation. Paleoanthropological research of the Xujiaoyao hominin remains supports the idea of continuity with hybridization as a major force shaping Chinese populations during the late Middle and early Late Pleistocene. Site formation processes have indicated different site exploitation in the Basin. Lithic technological studies have shown behavioral complexity and technological innovation by Pleistocene humans. Paleoenvironmental reconstruction contribute to explore the human adapted behaviors and environmental driving mechanism. Study of mammalian fauna from the Shanshenmiaozui site paints a more complete picture of Nihewan fauna, and analysis of hominin-carnivore interactions of Xujiaoyao archaic Homo provides a starting point for zooarchaeological work in the Basin.

The Nihewan Basin has become the classic region for demonstrating millions of years of human prehistory in China, knowledge that complements biological and cultural developments in the Old World.



Modern human fossils and their ages in southern China

WANG Wei

2024, 43(06):  934-950.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0091

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In recent years, the origin and evolution of modern humans in East Asia has been a hot topic in paleoanthropology, Paleolithic Archaeology and molecular genetics communities. Evidence from fossils suggests that the MIS 5 stage was an important period in the emergence and evolution of early modern humans in South China, with the earliest appearance of modern humans in this region being traced back to the early Late Pleistocene, roughly around 120,000 years ago. It is noteworthy that fossil evidence of anatomically modern humans currently over 50,000 years old in East Asia all come from South China poviding key clues for exploring the origin of modern humans in East Asia, which raises some scientific questions. First, there are still debates about the stratigraphic age of the early modern human fossil sites in South China; second, most late modern humans appeared after 40,000 BP, and there is a lack of fossil evidence from 80,000 BP to 40,000 BP; and third, little is known about physical features and genetic characteristics of most of the modern humans in South China.

In this paper, the author systematically sorts out the Homo sapiens fossils found from South China over half a century and referring faunal assemblages coeval with those human fossils, in order to establish a preliminary spatial and temporal framework for the survival of modern humans in the region. More human fossil sites, more detailed stratigraphic/chronometric studies in the late Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene in South China, paying more attention to the Paleolithic archaeological evidence, engaging in paleoenvironmental reconstruction, and using the molecular paleontology to explore the genetic structure of these early populations would be a significant contributions to further information on this time period in South China.



Research progress and prospects on northern dispersal routes of early modern humans into East Asia

LI Feng

2024, 43(06):  951-966.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0087

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The origin and dispersal of modern humans is a common concern in the scholarly community. Hominin fossils, ancient DNA and archaeological evidence show that origin and dispersal of modern humans are complex processes, and a simple replacement hypothesis does not work. Scholars have proposed southern and northern dispersal routes of modern humans from Africa to East Asia, and this paper mainly reviews research progress of the northern dispersal route. Available hominin fossils, dates, ancient DNA, and archaeological evidence indicate that early modern humans spread eastward across northern Asia between 50 kaBP and 40 kaBP. Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) and Upper Paleolithic evidence has been used to support these northern dispersal route(s). An overland model from Levant to northeast Asia has been proposed, while a single origin of IUP has been challenged by the fact that the IUP appeared simultaneously in Levant and Siberian Altai. In East Asia, a multi-dispersal model has been put forward, and scholars suggested that early modern humans might have dispersed through various pathways such as Hexi corridor or steppe in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. However, there are still many gaps in these routes, whether geographically or chronologically. Systematic investigation and excavations in central Asia and northwest China is the key to solving these problems. In addition to the earlier dispersal of modern humans, studies of Upper Paleolithic technology and ancient DNA suggest that there may have been multiple dispersal events of modern humans and technologies in northern Asia, probably in both directions. Studies at Zhoukoudian Upper Cave and the Tianyuan cave have demonstrated that early modern humans, unlike groups represented by IUP, bear many similarities with western Eurasia Upper Paleolithic hominins and culture. Scholars have hypothesized that the appearance of pressure microblade in different regions in northern Asia indicates an east-to-west diffusion of this technology in the late Upper Paleolithic. In consideration of the multi-stage complexity of modern human dispersals, it is an important task to reconstruct cultural sequences of the Upper Paleolithic in northern China, which can provide a more detailed cultural or technological evolution framework for exploring northern dispersal routes. In this way, we can further reveal the survival and adaptation characteristics of early modern humans in different regions, and deeply explore the interaction between early modern humans in different regions, and their interactions with archaic hominins such as Neandertals and Denisovans.



Paleolithic discoveries and research on the Tibetan Plateau

ZHANG Xiaoling, WANG Chengxiang, TAN Yunyao, JIN Yingshuai, YANG Ziyi, WANG Shejiang

2024, 43(06):  967-978.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0093

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The Tibetan Plateau is key to environmental and biological evolution but has long been considered a “forbidden zone” for human habitation. With the advancement of archaeological work, lithic remains on the Plateau, including the high-altitude Xizang Autonomous Region, have encompassed technologies such as core-flake, blade, microblade and handaxe. Taking Xizang Autonomous Region as the focus area, this article reviews archaeological discoveries, chronological frameworks, and understandings of technological origins by different lithic technologies on the Plateau.

Handaxe technology had spread to the south-eastern edge of Tibetan Plateau before 130 ka, represented by Piluo site. But the available materials are not sufficient to support its distribution to the interior Plateau sites like Xiada Co and Nwya Devu site.

Blade assemblages are discovered concentrated around Siling Co. Excavation of Nwya Devu site suggests that hunter-gatherers using prismatic blade cores arrived at the interior Plateau before 40 kaBP. However, no reliable Levallois elements have been found on the Plateau. Due to the paucity of archaeological findings, it is difficult to determine the exact dispersal routes of blade technology so far.

More than 100 localities on the Plateau suggest that microblade technology reached the northeastern part of the Plateau from North China around 14 kaBP to 10 kaBP, then spread across the Plateau at 8 kaBP to 7 kaBP. Due to the introduction of agriculture and pastoralism, it finally retreated to the marginal valleys of the Plateau after 5.5 kaBP.

Core-flake technology was also widespread on the Tibetan Plateau. Some core-flake assemblages may be contemporaneous with microblade remains but separated from them due to the lack of stratigraphic context. Some scholars have suggested that there are also Middle Paleolithic core-flake remains, which are not common in other parts of East Asia. Nevertheless, the evidence is not robust yet. Dated core-flake sites are found on both east and west sides of the Plateau. On the northeastern Plateau, core-flake remains are dated back to 190 kaBP in Baishiya Karst Cave. The Jiangjunfu 1 site also yields core-flake assemblages of MIS 5. At Piluo, core-flake remains present in both upper and lower cultural layers of the stratum containing handaxes. On the western Plateau, the cave site excavated recently is reported to contain two differentiated core-flake assemblages earlier than 53 kaBP and 45 kaBP.

Due to environmental and historical factors, the quantity and quality of archaeological work on Tibetan Plateau are insufficient. Therefore, systematic investigations, excavations and multidisciplinary researches are strongly needed. In addition, understanding of the Paleolithic outside the Plateau, developing interpretative methods for archaeological materials and deepening knowledge of landscape diachronic changes are also required for a better comprehension of the process and mechanism of human peopling and adaption on the Plateau.



Paleolithic culture and human interactions on the Southwest Silk Road

LI Hao, XIAO Peiyuan, PENG Peiming, WANG Yuqing, CHEN Qingyi, Ikram QAYUM, JIA Zhenxiu, RUAN Qijun, CHEN Fahu

2024, 43(06):  979-992.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0095

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Southwestern Silk Road is a vital link connecting southwestern China, the Tibetan Plateau, mainland Southeast Asia, South Asia, and southern Central Asia, all of which offers a crucial cross-regional perspective on Paleolithic human migration, diffusion, and interaction. This study reconstructs the complex network of the Silk Road by examining historical documents, modern transportation networks, and remote sensing imagery. Our reconstruction indicates that the spatial pattern of the network of Southwest Silk Road was substantially affected by the regional geographical environment, and during the Paleolithic period, early hominins relied more on the natural geographic corridors and natural resources to support their survival and developmental needs. From this evidence, we systematically review archaeological discoveries and research at the Middle Paleolithic and Early Upper Paleolithic periods along the Southwest Silk Road. The study explores the evolutionary processes of lithic technologies and cultural patterns across different regions, as well as the potential dispersal and interaction of ancient populations. Overall, during the Middle Paleolithic and Early Upper Paleolithic, southwestern China, the Tibetan Plateau and other regions in this southeast part of Asia exhibit periodic changes and innovations in lithic and other cultural technologies. Middle Paleolithic technologies are present across most regions along the Southwest Silk Road, characterized by a high degree of complexity and diversity. These varied technologies may indicate potential inter-regional migrations and diversified adaptive behaviors of archaic humans, such as Neanderthals, Denisovans. Bladelet and miniaturized lithic assemblages are key features of Early Upper Paleolithic sites along the road and are closely related to early modern humans. Overall, the different regions of this southeast part of Asia were clearly interconnected, serving as primary routes for migration and dispersal of archaic and early modern humans along what would later form the southwest Silk Road. Future research guided by the concept of the southwest Silk Road, particularly through cross-regional comparative studies, will deepen our understanding of the evolutionary history of early humans in Southwest China and the Tibetan Plateau.



Evolution of Pleistocene human femora in East Asia

WEI Pianpian, ZHAO Yuhao

2024, 43(06):  993-1005.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0083

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Investigation into morphological traits of femoral shafts from Pleistocene Homo sapiens is pivotal to our understanding of human movement patterns and body size of the East Asia type. Despite the critical role these fossils play, their scarcity and uneven distribution in East Asia pose a formidable challenge to this study of morphological evolution. This paper integrates published anatomical data with a systematic examination of midshaft cross sections and overall morphological structure of Pleistocene human femoral shafts from East Asia. This study shows a consistent trend in morphological changes from the early to late Pleistocene, mirroring anatomical patterns observed globally. For instance, the mechanical shape index of the femoral shaft increases, and the cross-sectional shape transitions from anterior-posterior elongation to medial-lateral elongation suggesting an evolutionary adaptation to changes in pelvic and femoral structures. Early and middle Pleistocene femora exhibit robusticity akin to those remains from other regions likely indicative of a common hunting-gathering lifestyle.

However, into the Late Pleistocene East Asia femora display a suite of features that align with those of Late Pleistocene modern humans elsewhere, including a pronounced femoral pilaster and gluteal buttress, elongation of the midshaft cross section in an anterior-posterior direction, and a thickening of the posterior shaft wall from mid-distal to mid-proximal, enhancing anterior-posterior and lateral bending rigidity. Robusticity of East Asia femora is notably lower than that observed in Europe and west Asia. This discrepancy may be attributed to a variety of factors, such as differences in behavioral activities or body size. It is plausible that the disparity in robusticity reflects distinct evolutionary pressures and adaptive responses to specific environmental conditions and subsistence strategies prevalent in these regions. Implications of these findings extend beyond mere cataloging of morphological traits; instead they offer insights into complex interplay between genetic predispositions, environmental influences, and behavioral adaptations that have all sculpted human evolution. The study underscores the importance of regional variations in the evolutionary process and a need for a holistic approach to understanding human evolution that takes into account unique adaptations of human populations. In conclusion, the detailed analysis of Pleistocene human femora in East Asia enriches our understanding of human locomotory behavior and body size evolution as well as highlighting regional differences.

This research contributes to a more nuanced appreciation of the diverse evolutionary pathways that have shaped anatomical and physiological characteristics of modern humans. The study encourages further exploration into morphological adaptations that have emerged in response to specific environmental and behavioral challenges faced by human populations.

Review and perspective of the ninety years in quest of Gigantopithecus blacki

ZHANG Yingqi

2024, 43(06):  1006-1026.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0094

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It’s been 90 years since the initial discovery of Gigantopithecus blacki, however, the hypodigm is still limited to 4 incomplete lower jaws and nearly 2000 isolated teeth recovered from 19 karst cave sites. Scientists have investigated various aspects of this giant ape including phylogeny, evolutionary trends, body mass and stature, ecology, diet, extinction, etc. based on the fossil material and the geological information of these sites. As a result, the mystery surrounding this hominid has been unveiled to the fullest possible extent. Although the current consensus takes G. blacki as a terminal member of the Sivapithecus-Indopithecus clade in Ponginae, it still needs to be tested by stronger fossil evidence such as the cranial or facial morphology. It has been inferred that G. blacki should be a ground-dwelling quadruped based on its body mass and stature. This also needs to be tested by the postcranial morphology, especially that of the limb bones. The early studies of G. blackiinvolved Peking Man in many ways. It was even considered as the direct ancestor of the human lineage by Weidenreichi. To commemorate the 95^th anniversary of the discovery of the first skullcap of Peking Man, the research history as well as the known and the unknown of G. blacki is systematically reviewed in this paper. Moreover, prospect of addressing related problems that recently emerge in the quest of G. blackiis discussed, such as the identity of the “mystery ape”, the Pliocene gap lying in the fossil record of southern China.

These issues are critical to understand the potential early Homo’s migration into China. It is worth mentioning that the academic community still considered Asia as the cradle of humankind until 1980s. It was the discovery of so many Pliocene to Early Pleistocene Australopithecus and early Homofossils in Africa since 1950s that led to the paradigm shift concerning where the hominin clade first arose. Unfortunately, the “mystery ape” from the karst region of southern China is still mysterious. We don’t know whether it should be placed on the pongine side or the hominin side of the family tree of great apes based on the current fossil evidence. And in marked contrast to the abundant late Pliocene fossils of australopiths in Africa, the Pliocene fossil record of mammals, especially that of hominids, is completely blank. Although most of the karst region in southern China has not been systematically surveyed yet, recent fieldwork in Guangxi and the Three Gorges region has shown considerable potential to address these issues. It is expected that groundbreaking discoveries can be made in southern China in the future, and therefore not only better fossil material for G. blacki and the “mystery ape” can be recovered, but also Chinese or even Asian elements can be contributed to the paradigm concerning the evolution of early Homo.



A supernumerary tooth of the Liujiang Man from the Tongtianyan cave site in Guangxi

SUN Qiyahui, XING Song

2024, 43(06):  1027-1037.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0012

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Hyperdontia or supernumerary (or extra) teeth is one of the most common developmental anomalies in modern humans. Most supernumerary teeth are typically found in the maxillary anterior region, with about half occurring along the midline of the maxilla between the two central incisors, known as mesiodens. While supernumerary teeth have been extensively documented clinically, reports of such cases in human fossils are rare. This study describes a mesiodens embedded in the mid-palatal region of the Liujiang cranium, which is an early modern human from the Late Pleistocene in southern China discovered in the 1950s. The Liujiang mesiodens is partially exposed near the intermaxillary suture on the right side of the hard palate. High-resolution microcomputed tomography and three-dimensional virtual reconstruction further revealed that the mesiodens is conical in shape and horizontally positioned in the hard palate, with its long axis parallel to the intermaxillary suture. This mesiodens is situated distally to the long axis of the right central incisors with its cuspal apex facing the back of the palate, thus it is classified as a labiopalatinal type. Its crown corresponds to the position of the second premolar, away from the alveolar bone. Despite some distinctive features the location, shape, and direction of the Liujiang mesiodens overlapped with certain cases found in modern humans including that those from the Early Holocene. Based on clinical observations of pathological cases in modern humans, it is proposed that the Liujiang mesiodens may have migrated from the anterior region of the maxilla to the mid-palatal area. During this migration process, this supernumerary tooth adjusted its long axis from its original inverted form to its current horizontal position. This study provides evidence, dating back to the Late Pleistocene early modern humans for the occurrence of a horizontally positioned mesiodens in the mid-palatal region. Additionally, the Liujiang mesiodens presents early fossil evidence of supernumerary teeth in this special position and form than previously reported, as well as offers a case for the paleopathological study of abnormal number and position of teeth.



Bony labyrinth variation of the Chinese early modern humans in Late Pleistocene

ZHANG Yameng, WU Xiujie

2024, 43(06):  1038-1047.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0096

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In recent years, the bony labyrinth has gained significant attention among paleoanthropologists due to its ease of preservation and ability to reflect evolutionary signals. Additionally, the morphological features of the bony labyrinth have proven to be indicative of population histories among modern populations. Studies reveal that Late Pleistocene early modern humans (EMHs) in China display mosaic morphological variation. Early modern humans from Longlin, Maludong, Dushandong exhibit archaic traits, whereas other fossil humans, including those from Qihedong and Zhaoguodong, display fully modern features. To investigate this morphological variation and this relationship with extant modern populations, this study examines the three-dimensional morphology of the bony labyrinth in five EMH specimens from China (Liujiang, Ziyang, Longlin, Zhaoguodong, and Qihedong) and compares it to that of modern populations worldwide. Results reveal significant morphological variations in the inner ear labyrinth among modern populations with European and African populations exhibiting similar morphologies but both differing considerably from Asian populations. Asian populations exhibit a cochlea with fewer turns, a more lateral basal position, and a shorter apex, resulting in reduced cochlear thickness. Additionally, the anterior semicircular canal is less torsioned and more anteriorly tilted. These features contrast with the inner ear labyrinths of most Europeans and Africans. While the overall shape of the bony labyrinth differs between Asian and European populations, both groups tend to have slightly larger centroids than African populations. Furthermore, African populations exhibit less morphological variation in the bony labyrinth compared to European and Asian populations, contradicting the general perception of greater phenotypic variation in African populations. This finding warrants further investigation. The inner ear labyrinth morphology of later EMH fossils (Qihe, Zhaoguodong, and Longlin) fall within the range of variation observed in modern Asian populations. In contrast, earlier EMH fossils (Liujiang and Ziyang) exhibit similar bony labyrinth morphologies and share greater similarities with both European and Asian modern populations. Besides, early modern humans from Liujiang and Ziyang exhibit smaller bony labyrinth centroid size than other fossil hominins and modern populations. This suggests that these early EMHs may represent an initial morphology of the population before its divergence into European and Asian lineages following their entry into Eurasia.



Bone artifacts unearthed from the Chuandong cave site in Puding of Guizhou in 1981

ZHANG Yue, ZHANG Shuangquan

2024, 43(06):  1048-1063.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0090

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Located in Puding County, central-western part of Guizhou Province, the Chuandong site is of great cultural significance for its extensive collection of bone tools. Dating from approximately 11±1 kaBP to 20±6 kaBP, this assemblage predominantly consists of sophisticated tools such as spatulas, points and awls, of which many exhibit remarkably well-preserved bone surfaces. However, so far the published researches on manufacturing of bone artifacts are based on naked-eye observations, and the presumed functions of such tools are largely rooted on typological comparisons or anecdotal records. In this paper, microscopic features found on the tools, along with results of bone surface modification analysis, bone implements from the 1981 field season using chaine opératoire and comparative ethnographic, experimental and archaeological data. Results shows that spatulas were made from the long bone shaft of large-sized bovids by percussion and engraving (probably with a relatively pointed or narrow-edged tool), while bipoint and awls were fabricated from the long bone shaft of large-sized cervids by extensive scraping or grinding. The present study shows that bone awls were principally used to perforate animal hides probably for cloth-making; rather than as a component of composite spear or fish gorge. Bipoints most probably used for drilling holes or in engraving activities. Further investigation of the spatulas from the cave shows that microstriations, ranging from 30 to 80 μm in width, are restricted within the polished parts of spatulas; with a progressive reduction in width from the tip, these striations are oriented parallel or sub-parallel to the long axis of the tool. This pattern is consistent with those observed in tuber exploitation experiments. It is thus concluded that, despite variations in morphology, the primary function of this category of tools was likely to exhume some kinds of under-ground storage organs, which are presumably to be one of the inhabitants main food resources. The bone tool assemblage from the Chuandong site provides a significant contribution to our understanding of the technological repertoire and subsistence patterns of Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers in Southwestern China and also in tracing cultural contact between different peoples in southeastern Asia as a whole.



Starch grains on the Luonan handaxe and strategy of ancient humans using stone tools

GUAN Ying, WANG Shejiang, ZHOU Zhenyu, GAO Xing, ZHANG Xi

2024, 43(06):  1064-1074.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0092

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In this study, we examine the functional attributes of Acheulean tools recovered from Zhanghuokou in the Luonan Basin, Shaanxi, China, through an analysis of plant residues, particularly starch granules. In the Paleolithic era, the handaxe was a ubiquitous implement in daily activities. Despite extensive research on handaxes, their precise functions and applications remain largely unresolved. The Luonan Basin is an essential Paleolithic site where the abundance of archaeological finds offers significant objects for study. This research aims to elucidate the specific utility of these Acheulean tools by employing starch granule analysis techniques, thereby contributing to our understanding of Paleolithic human survival strategies and everyday life.

The study’s objective is to determine the particular functions of Acheulean implements unearthed in Zhanghuokou through starch granule analysis, and to elucidate their roles in the lives of Paleolithic humans. For this research, the process involved sample collection, starch granule extraction, and microscopic observation and identification. Initially, we gathered samples from the tool surfaces at the Zhanghuokou site and chemically extracted the starch granules. Subsequently, through microscopy, the starch granules were categorized and analyzed. The interpretation of these results allows us to deduce the specific applications of handaxes, further elucidating their role in Paleolithic human life.

The study revealed a significant presence of starch particles on the handaxe surfaces, suggesting their potential use in digging activities. This finding contributes novel evidence on how these tools were utilized in daily activities by Paleolithic humans. Moreover, the diverse terrain and abundant faunal and floral resources in the Luonan region likely provided various survival strategies for its inhabitants, influencing both the strategic use and functional diversity of the handaxes. Through starch identification and analysis, we not only gain insights into the dietary habits of early humans but also gather evidence on how ancient populations exploited their local environments and developed adaptive strategies.

Looking to the future, this research will serve as a pivotal reference for understanding the evolution of ancient hominin technological and cultural traditions as well as their environmental adaptation strategies. The integration of starch granule analysis within archaeological research promises to uncover further details regarding ancient human tool function and use. Subsequent studies may expand the scope of starch granule analysis application, integrating it with additional archaeological methods to further investigate ancient human survival strategies, technological practices, and cultural traditions. Moreover, the findings offer historical insights that are relevant to modern human concepts of sustainable resource use, providing valuable reference for current ecological conservation and resource management. It is anticipated that ongoing research and exploration will afford a more comprehensive understanding of human evolutionary processes, thereby furnishing valuable insights for future developments.



Taphonomy of the Donggou Paleolithic site at Yuxian, Nihewan Basin

XU Jingyue, HE Xiangdong, NIU Dongwei, LI Xiaoli

2024, 43(06):  1075-1090.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2024.0063

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Understanding site formation processes is crucial for interpreting archaeological context patterns and hominin behaviors as these affect the preserved condition of a site and the integrity of archaeological remains. Over the past decade, studies on site taphonomic history from fluvio-lacustrine sequences in the Nihewan Basin of North China have been carried out, which offer an important opportunity to investigate human evolution and adapted behaviors from Early to mid-Pleistocene in East Asia. However, archaeological site context patterns regarding early human occupation within the river terraces after the Nihewan old lake died out still need to be further addressed. In recent years, a large number of archaeological sites from river terraces after the lake dried up have been unearthed in Yuxian, a sub-basin in the southeastern part of the Nihewan Basin. This study focuses on the recently discovered Donggou site from there and probes into its archaeo-stratigraphic sequence and site formation processes in order to evaluate its taphonomic history and site integrity.

The Donggou site was buried in the lower part of the second terrace on the right bank of the Donggou tributary of the Dian’an River (a tributary of Huliu River). AMS ¹⁴C and preliminary OSL dating results show that human occupation most probably took place in the early part of the Late Pleistocene. Geomorphological and sedimentary characteristics indicate that the Donggou archaeological remains are preserved within fine-grain deposits of silty clay that formed after recession of the Nihewan old lake. Multiple indicators, including spatial distribution patterns of lithic artifacts and animal bones, weathering and abrasion conditions of lithic stone technological composition, as well as debitage size curve, suggest that the Donggou archaeological remains were not strongly transformed. The artifacts have not undergone significant transportation or alteration by high-energy hydraulic flow. It should be noted that the gravitational agency has led to the distribution and orientation patterns of artifacts to some extent. In a word, the Donggou site belongs to a near-primary context with relatively high site integrity, that indicates the Donggou occurrences are suitable for studying early human technological strategies and adapted behaviors after the Nihewan Paleolake dried out.

In addition, this research shows that multiple rivers were developed within the Basin after the old lake recession, and many archaeological sites were buried inside river terraces. Further investigations of these sites will be of great significance for the exploration of human behavioral adaptation at the site, human adaptation to archaeological landscapes of river terraces, and for constructing the evolutionary trajectory of technological strategies of early humans in the Nihewan Basin and North China.