Abstract:

The ochre using has been long featured centrally in debates about the origins of symbolic and cognitively modern human behavior. In this paper, we reviewed the ochre using archaeological evidence internationally to clarify its origin, developmental process and its relationship with modern human evolution. Though the ochre using could be dated back to the Middle Pleistocene and also could happened to some archaic hominins, such as Neanderthals, it is deeply related to the origin and dispersal of modern human. We also reviewed the current archaeological evidence related to the ochre exploration in China. It is quite evident that the ochre using behaviors were clear recorded 40,000 years ago, at the time window modern human arrived at North China indicated by fossil and DNA evidence.

Exploitation of ochre, happened between 300 ka and 500 ka in Africa, is a part of technique innovations or behavioral shifts recorded in Middle Pleistocene, and contemporaneous with the raise of more hominin species (including our own species). Afterwards, around 200 ka, more ochre using evidence were recorded in Africa, Europe and Western Asia. Until around 100 ka, the clear ochre processing evidence and application of ochre on body decoration, cave paintings and even as adhesive. The "ochre using" emerged in large numbers during this period, could be related the dispersal of modern human and the increasing of some archaic hominins. Until around 40 ka, when the modern human widely distributed, diverse ochre applications appeared worldwide. When reviewing the archaeological evidence from China, within this time window, the ochre processing of Xiamabei was occurred, and shows that new adaptations were taking place as modern humans entered the region roughly 40,000 years ago. Afterwards, more archaeological evidence appeared in North and South China, such as the well-known finding in Zhoukoudian Upper Cave, and recently published rock paintings at Tiger Leaping Gorge. Although residue analysis indicated that the presence of ochre within the incised lines in Lingjing site can be dated back to around 100 ka BP, this may illustrate the possibility of ochre exploration of other Late Pleistocene hominins. We should not rule out the possibility that much older ochre exploration evidence would be identified in the future archaeological studies.

We augured that the behavior adaptation and evolution should be a process, not an event. For our own species, the so called ‘behavioral modernity’ could be rooted in the evolutionary history of some late archaic hominins. The ochre using widespread after the modern human occupied most of the world, and it is a key element of the package of behavioral modernity, but it is not an event of invention of Homo sapiens.

Key words: ochre, modern human, behavior, human evolution