Table of Content

15 September 2013, Volume 32 Issue 03

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Emergency and evolution of early modern humans in China: some thoughts derived from recent studies

LIU Wu

2013, 32(03):  233-246. 

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Research and debates on modern human origins have exhibited some new trends in the past ten years with more attention paid to the detailed course of modern human origins. These new trends involve three aspects: 1) the emergency and dispersal of early modern humans; 2) the morphological pattern and evolution of the late Middle to early Late Pleistocene hominins; and 3) health conditions and living adaptations during this emergence and evolution. In this paper, the past? ten? years’? research? in? the? field? of? the? emergence? and? evolution? of? modern? human? origins? in? China are reviewed and discussed.

Adaptation to high altitude hypoxia environment in Tibetans: a priliminary review of the biological anthropology of Tibetan

Xi Huan-jiu

2013, 32(03):  247-255. 

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Tibetans live in a special ecological environment, the Tibetan Plateau, called the Roof of the World. They have a unique culture and special adaptive machanisms to high altitude hypoxia, which caused widespread global attention and scholarly interest. We reviewed 30 years of? Tibetan? biological? anthropology? studies,? specifically? plateau? hypoxia? adaptation.? The? review? showed that Tibetans have adaptive variations in their body morphology and function, but also in their body composition. These adaptive changes in Tibetans had evolved for a long time and were ?significantly ?different ?from? those ?of? Andens,? even? living ?in ?the ?same ?of ?the ?Tibetan? Plateau.? Tibetans in Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan provinces of China, including Tibetans in Nepal and India also showed regional differences in the above biological aspects. Changes in Tibetan adaptations to hypoxia were caused by a number of factors, in addition to two key genes for hypoxia adaptation.

Research of forensic anthropology for 30 years in China

ZHANG Ji-zong

2013, 32(03):  256-263. 

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With improvements in economy and living conditions in China, cases of unknown or unidentified deceased humans has increased since 1980s and so forensic anthropology has played a key role in methods of human bone identification. Chinese forensic anthropologists have learned much from scientists in other countries and have started their own studies of human bone identification to meet the domestic demands, including sex, age, and stature determination. The purpose of this paper is to survey the history of forensic anthropology research and to look at its growth in China.

Historical relationships between biological anthropology and body composition

CHEN Zhao

2013, 32(03):  264-273. 

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With recently published Chinese books and workshops on body composition methods, biological anthropologists in China are now increasingly interested in applying body composition methods in their research. This paper provided a brief review on the historical contributions by anthropologists, such as Jindr?ich Matiegka, and Stanley Marion Garn, to the development of body composition methods. In addition, Dr. Garn’s work was used as an example to inspire body composition research by biological anthropologists in China. The author discussed the utility of body composition measurements in the research of biological anthropology, and described the basic theory and concept of body composition as well as the recent changes in body composition measurements: the advancement in imaging techniques, using imaging techniques as the “gold standard” to evaluate other body composition measurements, the advantage of Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry, the broad use of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis, and the presence of different body composition methods. The author also compared the strengths and limitations of commonly used body composition methods, and pointed out that body composition measurement is a natural extension of anthropometry, and has a long history with biological anthropology. As such, Chinese biological anthropologists should increase the application of body composition methods in research in order to better understand human variation and the relationship of human variation to health, disease, and biomedicine. By doing so, biological anthropology may increase its contribution to today’s society.

An examination of European racial characters in ancient populations from Northwestern China

ZHANG Yin-yun; WU Xiu-jie; LIU Wu

2013, 32(03):  274-279. 

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To detect possible gene flow from western Eurasia, European racial characters are examined and the mean rates of occurrence are calculated for each of 11 cranial samples from China. The results show that: 1)western genes appeared in Chinese populations as early as 2000- 3000 years BP; 2)it is through the Xinjaing region that the western gene flow spread eastward and into central China; 3) archaeological and morphological evidence shows that the racial advance limited to eastern Xinjiang and western Gansu before the Qin and Han Dynasty. In contrast, this study indicates that there were no such limitations of geography and dynasty in the movement of European racial characters.

An upper first premolar of Home erectus newly found at the Hexian site

FAN Xiao-xiao; ZHENG Long-ting; XING Song; WU Xiu-jie; HUANG Wan-bo; LIU Wu

2013, 32(03):  280-292. 

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An isolated upper first premolar (P3) of Home erectus was recently recognized from the fossil collection excavated from the Hexian site, Anhui. The present work carried out studies on both size and morphology of this new tooth. After comparing it with related specimens, the new P3 was found to be significantly large in the crown size, and represent the largest one among fossil teeth found in mainland of China, except for another P3 discovered at the same site. The large crown indicated a relatively primitive state. Based on the shape of crown outline and the pattern of cusp arrangement, the new P3 did not discriminate from those of other H. erectus. However, the deeply-furrowed mesial vertical groove on the buccal face clustered the new P3 with those of Asian H. erectus. This type of tooth underwent clear evolutionary changes in its size, transverse crest, buccal vertical groove, root number, the shape of crown outline, and the pattern of cusp arrangement. These P3 of Chinese H. erectus varied obviously in these features. The size and morphologies of the new Hexian tooth were relatively primitive within the group of Chinese H. erectus. Previous studies assumed that the skull of the Hexian fossil hominin displayed some features more progressive than those of Zhoukoudian H. erectus. However, this assumption was not supported by the present study. On the contrary, some traits of these premolars of Hexian H. erectus were found to be more primitive than those of Zhoukoudian H. erectus. The new P3 of Hexian H. erectus will play a significant role in exploring the origin and territorial variation of Chinese H. erectus.

Dental caries and mandibular anomalies of earlier modern humans from the Zhirendong site, Chongzuo, Guangxi

WU Xiu-jie; JIN Chang-zhu; CAI‌Yan-jun; ZHANG‌Ying-qi; WANG‌Yuan; QIN Da-gong; PAN Wen-shi

2013, 32(03):  293-301. 

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Between 2007 and 2008, three human fossils were found in Zhirendong, Chongzuo, Guangxi. Zhiren I is a small piece of alveolar bone around the second or third right mandibular molar. Zhiren II is a single right mandibular third or second molar. Zhiren III is the anterior portion of a mandible with 8 full alveoli present. They are dated by U-series to 100±ka BP. The Zhiren fossils are the earliest modern humans in East Asia and present a suite of dentoalveolar abnormalities. Zhiren I shows strong bone resorption around the apices of the roots, which are largely exposed. The Zhiren I individual was suffering from serious periodontitis. The Zhiren II molar has a severe carious and large lesion on the distal surface, which extends from the root of the tooth over the cement-enamel junction to the occlusal surface, and the pulp chamber is exposed. It is likely that there was pulpal infection and necrosis. Around the roots of the Zhiren II, ?there ?is ? a ?large ?area ?of ?white ?calcification,? probably ?from ?inflammation? of? periodontal? disease.? The Zhiren III mandible has dental crowding, bilateral I1 rotation (winging), and bilateral mesial premolar (P3) periapical lesions. Presumably, supernumerary cusps were situated at the occlusal surface of the bilateral premolars of the Zhiren III individual, and this elevation sooner or later became damaged or broke off during tooth use. The root canal opened, the pulp chamber became infected and caused the bilateral mesial premolar periapical lesions. Dental caries in Middle and Late Pleistocene are very rare. The Zhiren II dental caries is the earliest case found in China and East Asia. It supplies new evidence in understanding the origin and history of the caries.

Osteometric analysis of human skulls from the Liyudun Neolithic site

LI Fa-jun; WANG Ming-hui; FENG Meng-qin; CHEN Cheng; ZHU Hong

2013, 32(03):  302-318. 

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The Liyudun Neolithic site, located in Suixi, Guangdong Province, is dated to 7000- 6000 BP. The authors applied anthropometrical methods to quantify the human skulls. Results show that the skulls have traits fiting the Liyudun residents into the range of Mongolian Group. These residents have close morphological similarities to modern South Asian groups. Using e cluster analysis and traits analysis, three groups, Liyudun, Hedang and Dongwanzaibei show relatively close relationships. Liujiang and Zengpiyan also are similar. Youyugang is distant to other groups. And yet by conducting a Mahalanobis distance and factor analysis involving a wider geographic range, the Liyudun group is also distant from other groups. The authors found that there was a process of brachycephalization, acrocephalization and hypsicephalization in absolute measurement values, however a process of dolichocephalization in cranial index. This fact shows the maximum cranial length decreases faster than maximum cranial breadth during the late Pleistocene to the early Holocene, so we assume that the typical dolichocrany of modern South Asian groups appears at the beginning of Holocene.

Measurement analysis of the crown base area and cusp base area of the M1 of Northern Chinese in the Holocene

ZHOU Ya-wei; LI Hai-jun; ZHU hong

2013, 32(03):  319-329. 

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From measurement and analysis of the crown base area and relative cusp base area of M1and M1 of 532 teeth from northern China ranging from Neolithic to the Iron Age, we gain an understanding of northern Chinese dental traits. There are obvious differences in amphiprotic crown base area of M1and M1 with males larger than females. Relative cusp base area shows no sex differences. The male M1and M1 shrank 1.16% and 4.96% respectively, the female 5.68% and 6.11% form the Neolithic to the Bronze Age with no obvious variation from Bronze to Iron Age. When the crown base area shrank, the prongs evolved in a way that the occlusal surface can be enlarged to make the best use of the occlusal surface, and thus the relative cusp base area formed. Throughout the world, the size order of modern prongs is nearly the same. We conclude the order of the area of the prongs in M1 is protocone > paracone > metacone > mypocone. In M1 the area of the protoconid is the largest while the hypoconulid is the smallest. Areas of the other prongs are almost the same.

Tooth wear and health conditions of the Neolithic population of Qinglongquan, Yunxian, Hubei Province

ZHOU Mi; PAN Lei; XING Song; LIU Wu

2013, 32(03):  330-344. 

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The Qinglongquan site lies in Yunxian, Hubei Province. Excavations at the site yielded some remains with Yangshao, Qujialing and Shijiahe culture patterns. Based on the analysis of the archaeological remains, the site is believed to be a transitional region between North and South China Neolithic. Evidence from excavation and isotope analysis shows the Qinglongquan residents had remarkable skills in agriculture, stockbreeding, fishing and hunting. While people relied on millet agriculture as well as animal resources, the prevailing type of economy is still in question.
In order to investigate the diets and economic type of people living at the site, 1075 teeth from 87 individuals were examined for rate of their attrition, caries, antemortem tooth loss and robustness of jaw bones.
Compared to the other Neolithic populations in China, the Qinglongquan human teeth were characterized by a lesser degree of tooth wear on average, a higher frequency of caries, less antemortem tooth loss and oblique molar wear. The robustness of jaw bones is less pronounced and suggests that the Qinglongquan residents consumed more extensively prepared food rich in carbohydrate. The authors believed that the agriculture was thriving in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River before 5,000 years ago, millet and other grains had reached a dominant position in diet and residents of Qinglongquan might have aquired abundant knowledge of food processing.

Facial soft tissue thickness measurement and its application in craniofacial reconstruction

SHUI Wu-yang; ZHOU Ming-quan; JI Yuan; YIN Rong-chao

2013, 32(03):  345-353. 

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As a fundamental part of craniofacial reconstruction, soft tissue thickness is key. This paper, based on 132 adult craniofacial samples, with the aid of computer technology, explores measurement, analysis and application of soft tissue. The results are as follows: 1) By analyzing the soft tissue thickness of landmarks and facial soft tissue distribution, it has been shown that the arrangement of facial soft tissues has some rules: the forehead is thin with small differences between various samples, while the cheek is thick with large differences between various samples. 2) By comparing soft tissue thickness averages of males of different ages, it has been shown that these averages between 20 and 30 are the lowest, the next are between 50 and 60 with the highest between 30 and 40, and whose thickness averages are similar to males between 40 and 50. Comparing tissue thickness averages for females of different ages, it has been shown that averages between 20 to 30 ages are the lowest, next are between 30 and 40 with the highest between 40 to 50. 3) The standard deviation of soft tissue thickness can reflect differences in face? building,? therefore,? face? building? classification? can? be? achieved? based? on? the? average? and? standard deviation of facial soft tissue thickness of 10 landmarks on the cheek. 4) Based on soft tissue thickness averages of landmarks of various ages, genders and construction, we adopt computer ?technology ?to? achieve ?craniofacial? reconstruction ?of ?an? unidentified? skull,? the ?result ?of? which ?is ?more ?scientific ?than? the ?traditional ?manual ?method.

Bilateral asymmetry in human femoral cross-sectional surface areas and shapes: morphometric analysis using 3D laser scanning

WEI Pian-pian, XING Song

2013, 32(03):  354-364. 

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Paleoanthropologists have been paying more attention to human femoral cross- sectional surface areas, shapes and bilateral asymmetry because of the application of this informations to human evolution, population differences, and survival movements. Traditional analyses of femoral cross-sections usually adopt methods of destructive cutting, or labor- intensive model making. In this study, using 3D laser scanning, we nondestructively and conveniently get the outer contour of 20 paired femoral 3-D data from a modern Chinese population. With the software of CAD and method of geometric morphometrics, we examine bilateral asymmetry between the left and right femoral cross-sectional area and shape. The results indicate that bilateral asymmetry in femoral size and shape exists. Cross-sectional areas of paired femora have no significant differences in absolute values, but have significant differences in relative ones. Paired femora show flutuating asymmetry, rather than directional asymmetry. Moreover, significant differences on paired femoral cross-sectional shapes show fluctuating asymmetry. Directional asymmetry exists on paired femoral cross-sectional shapes, but it is not statistically significant. Average cross-sectional shapes and areas seem to indicate that human femora have a slight left-lateral dominance. Although the samples in this study are limited, and the conclusion need more specimens for further verification, our results show that using 3D laser scanning techniques, we can get data of femoral cross-sectional outer contour, and the methods of morphometric analysis does reveal some important information that traditional methods can not determine. This paper establishes a new method to examine bone asymmetry, and can be used for additional studies in human evolution.

Enamel thickness of Gigantopithecus blacki and its significance for dietary adaptation and phylogeny

ZHANG Li-zhao; ZHAO Ling-xia

2013, 32(03):  365-376. 

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Gigantopithecus blacki, a large Pleistocene hominoid from South China and Vietnam, is a very special taxon in any discussion of primate dietary proclivity and evolutionary phylogeny. In this study, 18 teeth of G. blacki, unworn or slightly-worn, are reconstructed using micro-CT in order to measure enamel thickness, and compared with extant and extinct humans and other primates.? We ?find ?that,? in? absolute? dimensions,? G. blacki has the thickest enamel thickness of any fossil or extant primates, while Paranthropus, early Homo and Ouranopithecus macedoniensis possess relatively closer values with it. With considerations of body and tooth size, the enamel measurements indicate that G. blacki belongs to a category of “thick-enamel” primate along with modern humans, Cebus, Australopithecus, East African Early Homo, Asian Homo erectus and some Miocene fossil apes (eg Proconsul nyanzae and Afropithecus turkanensis), but thinner than South African early Homo, Paranthropus and Ouranopithecus macedoniensis. The extremely thick enamel of G. blacki molars are evidently well used for grinding and crushing for a long period. The dietary proclivities may primarily focus on tough or fibrous vegetation. Human ancestors probably have thick enamel. G. blacki may be a side branch of hominids during the evolution. Meanwhile, G. blacki can be also evolved from one branch of Miocene fossil ape whose teeth enamel is thick. The thick enamel, common characteristic of G. blacki and human, is the result of parallel evolution.