Levallois technology, denominated after the Levallois-Perret site located in the northern suburbs of Paris, France, was initially recognized and demarcated by the archaeologist Henri Breuil. This particular technology, which necessitates the fabrication of specific flake products through core preparation, forms a distinctive hallmark of the Middle Paleolithic epoch in the western region of the Old World (referred to as the Middle Stone Age in the African context). It epitomizes the primary technological expression of Mode 3 preformed cores within Clark’s five-mode technological classification system. Marked by the pre-shaping of cores and the generation of specialized flake varieties, Levallois technology held sway in the Mousterian industrial complex.

Levallois technology originally sprang up during the late phase of the Lower Paleolithic Acheulian industry and subsequently experienced further progression within the Mousterian technological paradigm during the Middle Paleolithic period. The incidence and application of Levallois technology exhibited pronounced variations among diverse Paleolithic assemblages; nevertheless, it unfailingly materialized in a multitude of stone tool industries spanning the Near East, Europe, Africa, and Asia. This lithic technology was noteworthy for its elaborate preforming sequence and the production of standardized implements, attesting to the elevated cognitive capabilities of ancient humans. As a result, this technology is routinely contemplated in the reconstructions of human intellectual evolution, given that it intimates advanced powers of conceptualization, abstraction, intelligence, and language.

In contradistinction to its widespread prevalence in other regions, the documentary evidence of Levallois technology in China remains comparatively scant, attributable to the paucity of archaeological vestiges. Some scholars previously attributed the deficiency of Levallois technology in East Asia to meager effective population sizes and the absence of the Acheulian heritage. However, in recent years, with the strides made in archaeological excavations, the discovery of artifacts embodying Levallois technology at Chinese sites has galvanized the attention of the academic fraternity. Indicative Levallois artifacts have been unearthed at several locations in northern China, especially in areas proximate to Russia and Mongolia. These sites, dating back approximately 50,000 to 40,000 years ago, include Shuidonggou, Jinsitai, and Tongtian Cave. These findings have subverted prior assumptions and furnished novel vantage points for grasping technological assemblages, technological dissemination, as well as the divergences from representative sites of the late Middle Pleistocene and early Late Pleistocene in northern China.

This paper strives to introduce and encapsulate the Levallois concepts, products, and idiosyncratic traits of the reduction pattern. It clarifies the extant evidence of Levallois technology unearthed in China and the characteristics of the affiliated industries. By dint of this endeavor, we aspire to proffer valuable perspectives for further research undertakings.

Located in Qinshui County, Jincheng City, Shanxi Province, the Xiachuan site stands out as a significant Upper Paleolithic archaeological site. Excavations have revealed five distinct localities within the site, namely Xiaobaihuageliang, Fuyihegeliang, Liushuiyao, Shuijingbei, and Niulu localities. Two squares exhibiting similar stratigraphic accumulations were excavated at the Shuijingbei locality. The stratigraphic accumulation can be categorized into two primary cultural stages. The lower cultural layer comprises a wealth of remains characterized by a simple core-flake industry, indicative of the early Upper Paleolithic period (44~33 kaBP). The upper cultural stage contains remnants of microblade technology, corresponding to the middle Upper Paleolithic period (26~25 kaBP). During the early Upper Paleolithic stage at the Shuijingbei locality, the prevalent technological approach was simple core-flake industry, most artifacts were directly knapped by hard hammers with a small number of artifacts using bipolar method. In the upper cultural period at the Shuijingbei locality, microblade technology emerged alongside the continued presence of the simple core-flake industry. Among all the excavation localities within the Xiachuan site, the Shuijingbei locality stands out as having the most abundant remains associated with the simple core-flake industry. This particular locality offers valuable insights into the evolutionary trajectory of flaking practices across different time periods. A thorough analysis of the technical attributes of simple core-flake industry cores discovered from these distinct cultural layers at the Shuijingbei locality reveals two distinct flaking organization strategies: Platform orientation and flaking surface orientation. The platform orientation organization encompasses four distinct flaking patterns: Single flaking direction and surface, single flaking direction with multiple flaking surfaces, dual flaking surfaces with a single flaking direction, and multiple flaking surfaces and directions. Conversely, the more sophisticated flaking surface orientation strategy incorporates lateral directions within a single flaking surface and opposing flaking directions within the same flaking surface, constituting two distinctive flaking patterns and highlighting the complexity of flaking techniques. Remnants from both the early and middle Upper Paleolithic periods at the Shuijingbei locality in the Xiachuan site display evidence of these flaking organization strategies, suggesting the enduring nature of the simple core-flake industry’s techniques. Notably, during the middle Upper Paleolithic period at the Shuijingbei locality, advancements in core-flaking techniques are evident, characterized by improved platform retouch techniques, continuous flaking on a single surface, enhanced control over flakes’ shape and size, and increased core development and utilization. By comparing the characteristics of these flaking techniques, it can be inferred that the advancements observed in the middle Upper Paleolithic stage were likely influenced by the concurrent presence of microblade technology during the same period. This interaction between the two flaking technologies reflects the movements and migrations of ancient populations across the vast eastern part of the Eurasian continent, particularly in northern China, during the Upper Paleolithic phase.

The Xiazhai site is located to the north of Xiazhai village in Taohe Township, Xichuan County, Nanyang City, Henan Province. From 2008 to 2013, the Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology carried out continuous exploration and excavation work. The site harbors cultural remains spanning from the Yangshao period, through the Shijiahe culture period, the late stage of the Wangwan-III culture, the early Erlitou period, the Western Zhou period, the Eastern Zhou period, all the way to the Han, Tang, and Ming-Qing dynasties. Among these, a particular type of stone flakes with distinctive technological traits were unearthed from the Neolithic and Eastern Zhou cultural layers, as well as from pits and other archaeological contexts. After careful observation and in-depth analysis of these flakes, this study proposes that they were probably fabricated using the ridged-hammer bipolar flaking technique.

The ridged-hammer bipolar flaking represents a modified version of the Bipolar technique. Its technical crux lies in employing a stone hammer with a flat and sharp edge to execute an oblique, downward blow to the lateral edge of a flat stone core. Currently, while domestic scholars in China have engaged in extensive discussions regarding the ridged-hammer bipolar flaking technique, international counterparts have yet to acknowledge it as an independent flaking methodology. Some scholars contend that there is no essential disparity between ridged-hammer bipolar flakes and those generated by hammerstone percussion, sparking debates over the identification features, application modalities, and purposes of the ridged-hammer bipolar flaking technique.

This paper offers a concise review of the research history and extant issues related to the ridged-hammer bipolar flaking technique. By integrating prior research and experimental observations, identification criteria for the products of this technique have been distilled, taking into account elements such as flake butt, strike point, flaking angle, and the morphology of both the dorsal and ventral surfaces. Subsequently, these criteria are applied to identify and conduct quantitative and qualitative analyses of the ridged-hammer bipolar flakes unearthed at the Xiazhai site.

By scrutinizing the residual technological characteristics of ground stone tool blanks and the grinding marks on the dorsal surface of the ridged-hammer bipolar flakes from the Xiazhai site, this paper dissects the position and function of the ridged-hammer bipolar flaking technique within the operational sequence of ground stone tool production. The spatio-temporal distribution of sites where ridged-hammer bipolar flaking products were uncovered indicates that regions where this technique prevailed during both the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods were rich in stone materials and hunting and fishing resources. Significantly, at the Xiazhai site, the ridged-hammer bipolar flaking technique was not only utilized to procure flakes but also played a crucial part in the grinding and manufacturing process of ground stone tools, furnishing valuable insights into the inheritance and evolution of lithic technology.

Animal skeletons serve as valuable artifacts and crucial research targets in Paleolithic sites. Nevertheless, fragmented animal bones, especially those with species difficult to identify, have yet to receive adequate attention. The Wulanmulun site, a Middle Paleolithic site situated on the banks of the Wulanmulun River in Kangbashi New District, Ordos City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, dates back to 65 kaBP ~ 50 kaBP. Since its discovery and excavation in 2010, a substantial number of stone artifacts and animal fossils have been unearthed. Currently, in-depth investigations have been carried out regarding lithic artifacts, zooarchaeology, and taphonomy at this site. Hence, we will concentrate on the abundant previously unstudied incomplete skeletons and explore their formation processes to uncover their associations with human behavior and natural burial.

This paper centers on the 57,858 incomplete animal bone fossils excavated from the Wulanmulun site between 2010 and 2014, with the aim of probing into the formative factors of incomplete skeletal remains at the site. By means of quantitative analysis, experimental archaeology, and comparative analysis, we scrutinize the quantity and morphology of incomplete skeletal remains in an endeavor to elucidate the cultural traits and behavioral patterns of ancient humans. The findings suggest that: Firstly, the copious small-sized burned bones were presumably utilized as fuel instead of being the byproducts of roasting meat. Secondly, bone flakes, bone tools, and bone artifacts signify the activities of ancient humans in percussing and retouching bones, which differ from mere smashing for procuring food. Thirdly, through comparative analysis, it is deduced that marrow extraction and bone tool manufacturing coexisted at the Wulanmulun site, and the scarcity of 5 - 10 cm sized incomplete bones is correlated with the bone tool production activities of ancient humans. Fourthly, trampling experiments have verified that the fragmentation of bones caused by human and animal trampling is negligible and does not give rise to a large quantity of incomplete bones.

Consequently, this study implies that the formation of a large number of incomplete bones at the Wulanmulun site is intimately tied to ancient human activities such as marrow extraction, bone tool manufacturing, and bone burning. The Wulanmulun site comprehensively mirrors the cognitive level and utilization of animal bone resources by ancient humans, who not only harnessed meat resources but also exploited bone resources for marrow consumption, bone tool production, and fuel, exhibiting an efficient resource utilization strategy.

This paper undertakes Physical Anthropological research on the excellently preserved skeletal remains of 30 cases unearthed from the pottery site of the Western Zhou Dynasty in Dayuan Village, Xixian New Area, Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province. Through a combination of naked-eye observation and Dino-Lite microscopy, the paleopathological manifestations are meticulously recorded. The pottery site in Dayuan Village represents a significant archaeological discovery in the Xi’an region, predominantly yielding sand-tempered brown pottery “split crotch” li tripods. The products fabricated at this site are relatively homogeneous and display a high degree of specialization.

The pathological findings disclose that cribra orbitalia was prevalent among the majority of the ancient inhabitants, with some cases accompanied by porotic hyperostosis. This suggests that the local population might have endured iron-deficiency anemia, suffered from malnutrition, and resided in a poor living environment. A high incidence of rib periostitis and maxillary sinusitis was observed among the ancient site residents, potentially attributable to respiratory ailments induced by environmental pollution. The ancient inhabitants of this pottery site exhibited a remarkable frequency of metatarsal-phalangeal joint osteoarthritis, signifying the frequent utilization of metatarsophalangeal joints. Osteoarthritis, being the most common joint disorder, predominantly affected the spine joints, ankle joints, shoulder joints, and hip joints, reflecting a substantial labor burden. The metacarpals of the ancient residents were anomalously curved, and skeletal evidence of Musculoskeletal Stress Markers was detected on the phalanges and limb bones. These distinctive bony alterations imply that these individuals were involved in repetitive joint motions and occupations that placed significant demands on hand musculature.

Based on the paleopathology of the population at the site, the following deductions are made. In light of the pathological signs of the ancient residents in the pottery site in Dayuan Village, a high prevalence of cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, rib periostitis, and maxillary sinusitis was noted within the site population. The prevalence of osteoarthritis and the occurrence rate of metatarsal-phalangeal joint osteoarthritis were also considerable. It is hypothesized that these pathological changes might be associated with the joint stress resulting from long-term strenuous labor and the adverse environment of the pottery site. Considering the overall circumstances, these disease characteristics are intimately linked to the occupation of pottery making. The ancient residents who once resided in Dayuan Village were presumably pottery artisans and engaged in handicrafts over an extended period.

Located on the southern edge of the Loess Plateau in Shaanxi Province, the Yuejiazhuang cemetery stands out as the northernmost burial site for Qin residents and thus holds profound significance. In this research endeavor, the craniofacial traits of human skulls unearthed from this cemetery were meticulously analyzed by employing the methodologies delineated in the “Anthropometric Manual”. Through painstaking measurement and close observation of 141 skull specimens, we successfully deciphered the craniofacial morphology characteristic of the Yuejiazhuang inhabitants. The analytical outcomes disclosed a blend of medium and high cranial forms, narrow frontal aspects, medium to wide facial configurations, medium nasal shapes, as well as medium orbital features. Notwithstanding this discovery, the morphological analysis based on multivariate statistical techniques ascertained that the Yuejiazhuang residents were affiliated with the East Asian Mongolian ethnic group. Further comparative studies were conducted with individuals from the Bronze Age by means of principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. These investigations demonstrated that the Yuejiazhuang residents exhibited closer genetic affinities with those in the central Shaanxi Plain and more remote connections with their counterparts in southern Shanxi Province. Additionally, the multivariate statistical analysis hinted at the presence of specific cranial morphological discrepancies among the populations of the Qin and Jin regions during the Warring States period. Moreover, the flexed-burial customs and the accompanying grave goods discovered at the Yuejiazhuang cemetery vividly and typically mirrored the cultural elements of the Qin Dynasty. Historical records also attest that since the mid-Warring States period, the Qin state had frequently implemented population relocation policies, transplanting inhabitants to newly conquered areas to augment political governance. By integrating these elements, it can be deduced that the principal genetic constituents of the Yuejiazhuang residents predominantly stemmed from the Qin people who migrated from the Central Shaanxi Plain during the middle to late Warring States period. The Yuejiazhuang Cemetery offers invaluable perspectives into the cultural and genetic fabric of the Qin population throughout the Warring States era. Furthermore, the practice of flexed burials and the variety of artifacts interred with the deceased at Yuejiazhuang furnish additional corroboration for the historical accounts of Qin migration and resettlement strategies. These policies were presumably part of a more extensive blueprint designed to fortify Qin’s dominion over newly acquired lands by assimilating the local populace with Qin settlers, thereby safeguarding political and social stability. The genetic evidence gleaned from the Yuejiazhuang cemetery, when combined with archaeological and historical data, paints a comprehensive tableau of population migrations and cultural amalgamation during the Warring States period. It accentuates the pivotal role of state policies in molding the demographic panorama of ancient China, especially through the migration and settlement of Qin people from the central plains to peripheral regions. This synthesis of genetic, archaeological, and historical proof enriches our comprehension of the intricate social dynamics and interactions that typified the Warring States period, spotlighting the profound impact of migration on the cultural and genetic constitution of ancient Chinese populations.

The Beishenjiaqiao cemetery, located in Yanta District, Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province, is a burial ground of the Qin people during the Warring States Period on the Guanzhong Plain. Through the observation and measurement of 63 basically intact skulls unearthed from this cemetery, the following conclusions have been reached: The Beishenjiaqiao group exhibits a combination of mesocranium, high cranial vault, and narrow cranial shape, along with a relatively broad facial type. The maxillary central incisors are mostly spade-shaped, and the canine fossae and nasal root concavities are weakly developed. In comparison with modern Asian Mongoloid groups, it shows the closest affinity with the Fushun group, North China group, and South China group, while maintaining a greater distance from the Mongolian group and Turgus group. Therefore, the inhabitants of Beishenjiaqiao should be classified as the East Asian Mongoloid race. When contrasted with ancient groups in the early pre-Qin period, the Beishenjiaqiao group is closely related to the residents of the “ancient Central Plains type” such as the Yangshao Merged group, Miaodigou group, Taosi group, Chengzi Phase II group, and Dawenkou group, and is also proximate to the residents of the “ancient North China type” like the Miaozigou group. In comparison with ancient groups of the Bronze-early Iron Age, it has a strong connection with the Yin Shang groups such as the Small and Medium Tombs Group 2 and Group C of the Yin ruins, as well as the Qin and Zhou groups including the Wanli group, the Wayaogou group, and the Matengkong group. Considering the long-term and close associations between the residents of Beishenjiaqiao and those in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, especially the closer relationship with the Yin Shang group, and in combination with literature research and other multidisciplinary evidence, it is hypothesized that the Qin people might have been one of the tribes of the Yin Shang group, thereby corroborating the “theory of originating from the east”. Based on the records in the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips “Chronicle”, we can deduce the development trajectory of the Qin people: The Qin might have initially been an eastern ethnic group, either closely affiliated with or even an integral part of the Yin-Shang tribes. After the fall of the Shang Dynasty, they were banished by the Zhou people to the northwest to defend against the Rong tribes. During this period, they coexisted and interacted with the Rong, leading to cultural and genetic exchanges. However, the main body of the Qin people retained numerous cultural traditions and physical characteristics from the Yin-Shang era. In contrast, the Qin people who assimilated into the Gansu-Qinghai region, such as the residents of Maojiaping, perpetuated more of the local physical traits. In the late Western Zhou period, the Qin were rewarded for their efforts in safeguarding the Zhou royal family during its eastward migration and subsequently took control of the Guanzhong region, further enhancing the interaction and integration among the groups along the Yellow River basin.

During chewing, teeth rub against phytoliths in food and foreign gravel in the soil, generating diverse dental microwear patterns on the buccal surface of the teeth. The distinct diet structures of populations with different life patterns lead to varying food particles in their diets, which in turn result in different dental microwear. To explore whether differences in the diet structures of populations with different life patterns would manifest as microwear patterns, the author selected the mandibular first molars of 79 individuals from the Wanggou site in Zhengzhou and the Jinmaoyuan site in Datong. The microwear patterns on the buccal side of the teeth were observed using a Leica DVM6M ultra-depth microscope. The results indicated significant differences in microwear patterns between the two groups. For the Wanggou people, whose main economic activity was agriculture, the average number of striations was 36.95, the average length of striations was 236.89 microns, and the average ratio of horizontal to vertical striations (L_h/L_v) was 120.89%. In contrast, for the Jinmaoyuan people under a mixed economy of agriculture and animal husbandry, the average number of striations was 28.26, the average length of striations was 262.55 microns, and the average L_h/L_v ratio was 83.51%. Compared with the Jinmaoyuan people, the Wanggou people exhibited shorter striations, higher density, and a higher L_h/L_v ratio. The average number of striations in the Wanggou people tended to increase with age. There was little disparity in the striation pattern between men and women of the Wanggou people. However, the mean number and average length of striations in the male youth group were smaller than those in the female youth group, suggesting that young men consumed a relatively higher proportion of meat. For the Jinmaoyuan people, the average number of striations and the length of striations gradually decreased with age, indicating that there were fewer hard particles in the diet of the middle-aged group and the physical properties of the food were softer. The L_h/L_v ratio in the prime-age group was notably lower than in other groups, implying that they might consume more meat. The study on the differences in buccal microwear between the two groups revealed no significant difference in the internal microwear patterns between the two populations, indicating a relatively stable diet structure. Nevertheless, the two groups had substantial differences in buccal microwear patterns, demonstrating that different diet structures would induce different micro-attrition patterns. The high proportion of plant food in the diet structure of the Wanggou site inhabitants led to the high density of striations. The diversified subsistence modes and the cold, dry, and sand-prone climatic environment of the Jinmaoyuan site might incorporate more hard exogenous particles in the residents’ food, resulting in longer striations.

The Honghe site (123°35′56″E, 47°06′49″N), situated on the right bank of the middle reaches of the Nenjiang River in Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, Northeast China, has been ascertained to be a pivotal location for comprehending prehistoric and historical human activities in this region. Between 2013 and 2019, the Heilongjiang Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology carried out five excavations at the Honghe site, leading to the discovery of copious cultural relics and faunal remains. These findings span an extensive chronological range, from the Late Neolithic to the Qing Dynasty, underlining the protracted history of human settlement and resource exploitation in the area. Among the diverse animal remains unearthed, the bones of roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) stand out notably.

The principal aim of this study was to analyze the roe deer bones excavated from the Honghe site, with the intention of discerning the interactions between humans and roe deer during the Late Neolithic era. By conducting a comprehensive examination of the roe deer skeletal remains, researchers endeavored to reconstruct the modalities of hunting, processing, and utilization by ancient inhabitants. The analysis incorporated the investigation of the age structure at death, sex ratios, seasonal hunting patterns, skeletal distributions, and techniques of bone processing and utilization. The results demonstrated that the mortality of roe deer predominantly transpired within two age brackets: Prime ages of 3~7 years and 7~9 years, and a higher proportion of males was detected among the specimens. This suggests that hunters might have deliberately targeted these age groups, potentially due to their size and the quality of their antlers.

Hunting activities at the Honghe site seemingly took place throughout the year, indicating a continuous dependence on roe deer as a resource. Although seasonal fluctuations were observed, the data imply that roe deer served as a dependable source of both meat and bone materials year-round. The bones most commonly unearthed comprised mandibles, antlers, and limb bones, affording glimpses into the portions of the animal that were most prized. The presence of antlers intimates that hunters may have focused on males for their antlers, which could have been employed for fabricating tools and ornaments.

Furthermore, the site yielded an assortment of bone tools fashioned from roe deer bones, such as fishhooks, awls, and daggers. These artifacts accentuate the role of roe deer bones as a crucial raw material for tool manufacture, exemplifying the adaptability and ingenuity of the Neolithic inhabitants. It is highly probable that the roe deer hides played a significant part in the production of clothing, furnishing warmth and safeguarding against the frigid climate of Northeast China.

In toto, the study of the Honghe site illuminates the significant part that roe deer played in the subsistence and material culture of the ancient inhabitants of this region. The findings offer precious insights into the broader fishing and hunting economy of the Late Neolithic period in Northeast China, stressing the importance of roe deer as a multifaceted resource. Through this analysis, researchers have attained a more profound understanding of the means by which the Neolithic communities acclimated to and thrived in their environment, relying on local fauna to support their livelihoods.

Genomic analysis of ancient wild animal remains is of not only great significance for the conservation and utilization of genetic resources of wild animal species but also crucial for helping us understand the diet compositions and hunting activities of ancient human beings as well as their social-economic development patterns. Ancient DNA technology has been widely employed in archaeological research. Among its numerous strengths, its potential to decipher the genetic information carried by biological samples at the molecular level has been widely acknowledged, and many researchers have utilized ancient DNA analysis to distinguish between domestic and wild animals. Moreover, when combined with historical and archaeological evidence, it offers us robust scientific and technological support, enabling us to comprehensively understand ancient human societies, including their origins and evolutionary processes.

In this study, the ancient DNA of nine animal samples, which were excavated from the Changning, Mogou, Quanhucun, and Dashigou sites in Northwest China and morphologically identified as either “sheep” or “goats”, was investigated using ancient DNA technology. Ancient DNA extraction, library construction, and high-throughput sequencing were carried out, and the mitochondrial genome sequences of the nine samples were successfully obtained. Alignment analysis was performed between the genomic sequences of these samples and the 146 mitochondrial genomic sequences of Cervidae and Bovidae (used as reference data). The results of the alignment analysis indicated that these nine samples were identified as belonging to four different wild animal species within the families of Cervidae and Bovidae: the Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) of the genus Capreolus within the subfamily Odocoileinae; the Przewalski’s gazelle (Procapra przewalskii) and Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) of the genus Procapra within the subfamily Antilopinae; and the Sumatran serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) of the genus Capricornis within the subfamily Caprinae.

Two phylogenetic analyses were conducted on the mitochondrial genome data extracted from the Odocoileinae, Caprinae, and Antilopinae subfamilies. Bayesian phylogenetic trees and Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic trees were constructed. It was demonstrated that each of the nine samples clustered with the corresponding species identified by the alignment analysis, which was consistent with the results of the principal component analysis on the same data set, where the nine samples were assigned to the corresponding species identified in the alignment analysis. Genetic distance calculations between individuals based on ancient and modern samples revealed that each of the nine samples was genetically closest to the specific species identified.

All of the above results emphasize that ancient DNA technology can overcome the limitations of morphological methods in the species identification of ancient animals. Considering other wild animal bone remains excavated from the four sites, it can be concluded that the ancient people in prehistoric Northwest China used wild animals as a supplement to domestic animal resources for food, sacrificial offerings, and bone tool manufacture. This study is of great significance as it provides new evidence at the molecular level and corroborates the findings of previous archaeological research on animals in prehistoric times.

Dispersals, colonisation, immigration and population assimilation or replacement are fundamental themes in the Palaeolithic record of East Asia. Some of these issues can be studied within a biogeographic framework that explains why and how the distribution of hominin species changed over time and space in response to climatic and environmental change. Because hominins (and especially humans) can change their behaviour through technical, social and cognitive developments, biogeographic models also have to incorporate this factor when investigating dispersals. This is particularly important with the dispersals in East Asia by Homo sapiens into rainforests, across open sea to off-shore islands, to the Arctic and the highest parts of the Tibetan Plateau. This paper suggests how hominin and human dispersals in East Asia might be investigated by using a biogeographic framework that can incorporate changes in hominin adaptability and behaviour.

This paper meticulously addresses the significant theoretical and methodological aspects involved in isotopic investigations of human tooth enamel. Firstly, it systematically organizes the growth and development mechanism, principal chemical composition, and the efficacy of human tooth enamel in withstanding diagenesis. Emphasis is placed on the inherent advantages that have rendered it the primary target for hydroxyapatite isotope analyses and studies within the current bioarchaeological realm. Secondly, a vast array of research topics centered around the multi-isotope analysis of elements such as oxygen (δ¹⁸O), carbon (δ¹³C), strontium (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr), zinc (δ⁶⁶Zn), magnesium (δ²⁶Mg), calcium (δ^44/42Ca), and lead (Pb) in human enamel are distilled and consolidated into three scientific themes: human life history, habitation, and health. Additionally, the current status of each of these research areas is comprehensively reviewed. Finally, within the framework of constructing the theoretical system of archaeology with Chinese characteristics in the new era, the exigency of the swift advancement of multi-isotope research on tooth enamel is underscored. In light of the existing research experiences and deficiencies in the international bioarchaeology community, future research in China is anticipated to progress from the vantage points of innovating experimental sampling strategies and research methodologies, accurately discerning the merits and demerits of diverse mass spectrometry techniques, broadening the depth and scope of research topics, and delving deeply into the cooperative interactions between isotopes and different human body tissues.